Haspelmath (2007): Coordination — structural typology

@cite{haspelmath-2007} @cite{stassen-2000} @cite{mitrovic-sauerland-2014} @cite{mitrovic-sauerland-2016} @cite{mitrovic-2021} @cite{noonan-1992} @cite{schwartz-1989} @cite{rowlands-1969} @cite{sridhar-1990} @cite{dench-1995} @cite{beyer-1992}

Martin Haspelmath. "Coordination." In Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Vol. II, ed. T. Shopen, 2007.

Cross-linguistic typology of coordination: syndesis (asyndetic / monosyndetic / bisyndetic), structural patterns, and diachronic sources (comitative vs additive focus particle).

What lives here

• The 19-language exemplar sample (M&S focus + Haspelmath illustrations).
• Structural / diachronic generalisations (comitative_source_monosyndetic, focus_particle_source_bisyndetic).
• @cite{mitrovic-sauerland-2016} M&S generalisations (mu_additive_generalization, j_is_universal, all_three_is_rare, mu_boundness_asymmetry).

The structural enums (Syndesis, CoordPattern, DiachronicSource, etc.) live in the substrate Linglib/Typology/Coordination.lean.

Sample composition

The 19 languages combine:

• M&S focus languages (English, Japanese, Hungarian, Georgian, Latin, Korean, Slovenian) where the J/MU/J-MU semantic decomposition is the primary motivation.
• Haspelmath structural exemplars (Lango, Hausa, Yoruba, Kannada, Martuthunira, Classical Tibetan, Hindi-Urdu, Turkish, Irish, Persian, Finnish, German) covering each structural pattern.

def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.english : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

English only has J ("and"). "Both...and" is sometimes analyzed as J-MU, but "both" is not productively used as an additive particle ("John both slept") and English lacks MU-only conjunction ("John both Mary both slept").

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.german : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

German uses "und" (J, free word), like English "and". J-only strategy. Test language for @cite{schwarzer-2026}'s study of selection-violating coordination in OV environments.

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.japanese : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Japanese conjunction uses "to" (J) and "mo" (MU). "to" derives from the comitative marker. "mo" is also the additive particle.

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.hungarian : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Hungarian: "és" (J, free, prepositive), "is" (MU, free, postpositive). "is" is also the additive focus particle ("also"). One of two languages in the sample with all three strategies (J, MU, J-MU).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.georgian : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Georgian: "da" (J, free), "-c" (MU, bound clitic). "-c" is also the additive/focus particle.

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.latin : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Latin: "et" (J, free, prepositive) and "-que" (MU, bound enclitic, postpositive). "-que" is the classic bound MU particle. Three patterns: A et B, A B-que, et A B-que.

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.korean : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Korean: "-(i)rang" (J, bound, postpositive) and "-to" (MU, bound, additive).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.slovenian : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Slovenian: "in" (J, free, prepositive). Primarily J-only.

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.lango : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Lango (Nilotic, Uganda): "kèdè" is a comitative marker that also serves as coordinator. Classic AND-language with comitative source giving monosyndetic A co-B (@cite{noonan-1992}:163, @cite{haspelmath-2007} (20)).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.hausa : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Hausa (Chadic, Nigeria): "da" means both "with" (comitative) and "and" (conjunction) (@cite{schwartz-1989}:32,36; @cite{haspelmath-2007} (12)).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.yoruba : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Yoruba (Kwa, Nigeria): "àtí" in "àtí A àtí B" — canonical prepositive bisyndetic coordination (@cite{rowlands-1969}:201ff, @cite{haspelmath-2007} (25)).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.kannada : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Kannada (Dravidian): postpositive "-u" on each coordinand gives A-co B-co (@cite{sridhar-1990}:106, @cite{haspelmath-2007} (5)). "-u" is also the Dravidian additive/focus particle.

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.martuthunira : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Martuthunira (Pama-Nyungan, W. Australia): "-thurti" on each coordinand gives A-co B-co (@cite{dench-1995}:98, @cite{haspelmath-2007} (26)).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.classicalTibetan : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Classical Tibetan: "-daŋ" is postpositive on first coordinand, giving A-co B. Derives from comitative source (@cite{beyer-1992}:240, @cite{haspelmath-2007} (21)).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.hindiUrdu : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Hindi-Urdu: "aur" (J, free, prepositive) and "bhii" (MU, free, additive). Pattern: A aur B (monosyndetic), A bhii B bhii (bisyndetic postpositive).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.turkish : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Turkish: "ve" (J, free, prepositive) and "de/da" (MU, free, additive).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.irish : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Irish: "agus" (J, free, prepositive). Pattern: A agus B (monosyndetic medial).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.persian : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Persian: "va" (J, free, prepositive) and "ham" (MU, free, additive).

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.finnish : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

Finnish: "ja" (J, free, prepositive) and "-kin" (MU, bound, additive). koira-kin kissa-kin 'dog-too cat-too' = 'both the dog and the cat'.

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.allLanguages : List Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

All 19 ConjunctionSystem profiles.

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def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.msLanguages : List Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem

M&S focus languages (Bill et al. 2025 acquisition study sample).

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theorem Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.sample_size : allLanguages.length = 19

theorem Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.ms_sample_size : msLanguages.length = 7

theorem Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.mu_additive_generalization : have withMu := List.filter (fun (sys : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem) => sys.morphemes.any fun (x : Typology.Coordination.SourcedEntry) => x.entry.role == Features.Coordination.CoordRole.mu) allLanguages; (withMu.all fun (x : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem) => x.muIsAdditive) = true

Every language with a MU conjunction particle uses the same morpheme as its additive ("also/too") particle. Core M&S prediction: MU is a single lexical item with subset semantics that appears in both conjunction and additive contexts.

theorem Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.j_is_universal : (msLanguages.all fun (x : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem) => x.hasStrategy Features.Coordination.ConjunctionStrategy.jOnly) = true

Every M&S-classified language has at least the J-only strategy.

def Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.hasAllThreeStrategies (sys : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem) : Bool

Helper: does the system attest all three strategies (J, MU, J-MU)?

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theorem Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.all_three_is_rare : have count := (List.filter hasAllThreeStrategies allLanguages).length; (count == 2) = true

All three strategies (J, MU, J-MU) are attested only in Georgian and Hungarian in the sample. Typologically rare.

theorem Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.mu_boundness_asymmetry : georgian.muBoundness = some Features.Coordination.Boundness.bound ∧ hungarian.muBoundness = some Features.Coordination.Boundness.free

Georgian MU is bound, Hungarian MU is free. @cite{bill-etal-2025} @cite{mitrovic-2021} speculate this morphological difference may explain the acquisition asymmetry: bound morphemes are harder to segment.

theorem Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.comitative_source_monosyndetic : have withComitative := List.filter (fun (x : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem) => x.hasSource Typology.Coordination.DiachronicSource.comitative) allLanguages; (withComitative.all fun (x : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem) => x.hasMonosyndetic) = true

Every language with a known comitative-sourced morpheme has at least one monosyndetic structural pattern. Confirms: comitative "with" → monosyndetic A co-B / A-co B. Languages: Lango, Hausa, Japanese, Classical Tibetan.

theorem Phenomena.Coordination.Studies.Haspelmath2007.focus_particle_source_bisyndetic : have withFocusParticle := List.filter (fun (x : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem) => x.hasSource Typology.Coordination.DiachronicSource.focusParticle) allLanguages; (withFocusParticle.all fun (x : Typology.Coordination.ConjunctionSystem) => x.hasBisyndetic) = true

Every language with a known focus-particle-sourced morpheme has at least one bisyndetic structural pattern. Confirms: additive focus particle "also" → bisyndetic A-co B-co. Languages: Japanese, Hungarian, Georgian, Latin, Korean, Kannada.