Georgian Coordination Morphemes

[Has07] [BGD+25]

Georgian is one of two languages in our sample (with Hungarian) that attests all three M&S conjunction strategies: J-only, MU-only, and J-MU.

• da — J, free, prepositive: "A da B"
• -c — MU, bound clitic, postpositive: "A-c B-c"
• -c da...-c — J-MU combined

The MU particle -c is also Georgian's additive/focus particle, confirming the M&S prediction. Crucially, -c is a bound clitic, unlike Hungarian is (free). [BGD+25] speculate this morphological difference may explain why Georgian children found MU-involving strategies harder.

Connection to Typology.lean: Haspelmath2007.georgian Connection to BillEtAl2025: Georgian children found J-MU hardest (contrary to the Transparency Principle prediction).

def Georgian.Coordination.da : Coordinator

da — primary conjunction, J particle. Free, prepositive. "nino da giorgi" = "Nino and Giorgi".

Equations

• Georgian.Coordination.da = { form := "da", gloss := "and", role := Coordinator.Role.j, boundness := Boundness.free }

def Georgian.Coordination.c_ : Coordinator

-c — MU particle / additive focus particle. Bound clitic, postpositive. Conjunction: "nino-c giorgi-c" = "both Nino and Giorgi". Additive: "nino-c dzinavs" = "Nino also sleeps". The bound status of -c contrasts with Hungarian free "is".

Equations

• Georgian.Coordination.c_ = { form := "-c", gloss := "also, too; and (MU)", role := Coordinator.Role.mu, boundness := Boundness.bound, alsoAdditive := true }

def Georgian.Coordination.an : Coordinator

an — disjunction. Free, prepositive. "nino an giorgi" = "Nino or Giorgi".

Equations

• Georgian.Coordination.an = { form := "an", gloss := "or", role := Coordinator.Role.disj, boundness := Boundness.free }

def Georgian.Coordination.magram : Coordinator

magram — adversative conjunction. "lamazia magram dzviri" = "beautiful but expensive".

Equations

• Georgian.Coordination.magram = { form := "magram", gloss := "but", role := Coordinator.Role.advers, boundness := Boundness.free }

def Georgian.Coordination.allEntries : List Coordinator

Equations

• Georgian.Coordination.allEntries = [Georgian.Coordination.da, Georgian.Coordination.c_, Georgian.Coordination.an, Georgian.Coordination.magram]

theorem Georgian.Coordination.one_bound : (List.filter (fun (x : Coordinator) => x.boundness == Boundness.bound) allEntries).length = 1

Georgian has exactly one bound morpheme: the MU clitic -c.

theorem Georgian.Coordination.bound_is_mu : ((List.filter (fun (x : Coordinator) => x.boundness == Boundness.bound) allEntries).all fun (x : Coordinator) => x.role == Coordinator.Role.mu) = true

The bound morpheme is the MU particle.

theorem Georgian.Coordination.mu_is_additive : ((List.filter (fun (x : Coordinator) => x.role == Coordinator.Role.mu) allEntries).all fun (x : Coordinator) => x.alsoAdditive) = true

The MU particle -c also serves as an additive particle.