Spanish verbs

Spanish verbs of change of state form their intransitive in one of two ways. Most take the reflexive clitic, as quebrar 'crack' does in el florero se quebró; a small class takes none, as mejorar 'improve' does in los sueldos mejoraron. A few allow both: hervir 'boil' is usually bare and marginally takes the clitic, and the unaccusatives caer 'fall' and morir 'die' occur with and without it. Each verb records the marking of its intransitive, and whether it alternates is read off its diatheses: an alternating verb has a transitive diathesis and an intransitive one with the patient as subject. The proto-role entailments of the subject are those Koontz-Garboden discusses for the causer, and the classification by marking follows Muñoz Pérez.

The verbs with a lexical reciprocal entry beside their transitive use are those of Palmieri's appendix. They are ordinary verb entries here, and Spanish.Reciprocals.lexicalReciprocals records which of them are lexical reciprocals.

The verbs of the dative survey are those whose dative arguments Cuervo classifies, with the frames the survey uses.

The attitude and causative verbs record the mood of the finite complement each selects in an affirmative declarative clause, the data of Grano's survey of mood choice and of Portner and Rubinstein's study of desire verbs; a subjunctive licensed by matrix negation or a question is not a frame of the verb.

References

• A. Koontz-Garboden, Anticausativization (2009)
• G. Palmieri, Lexical and Grammatical Reciprocity: Perspectives from Romance, Bantu and Beyond (2024)
• C. Muñoz Pérez, Stylistic applicatives: A lens into the nature of anticausative SE (2026)
• A. A. Spalek and L. McNally, The anatomy of a verb (2026)
• T. Grano, Intention Reports and Eventuality Abstraction in a Theory of Mood Choice (2024)
• M. C. Cuervo, Datives at Large (2003)
• [PR20]

Change-of-state verbs

inductive Spanish.Verbs.AnticausativeMarking : Type

How the intransitive of a change-of-state verb is marked.

• marked : AnticausativeMarking

  The intransitive takes the reflexive clitic, as quebrarse.

• unmarked : AnticausativeMarking

  The intransitive is bare, as mejorar.

• optional : AnticausativeMarking

  The intransitive occurs with and without the clitic, as caer and caerse.

@[instance_reducible]

instance Spanish.Verbs.instDecidableEqAnticausativeMarking : DecidableEq AnticausativeMarking

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.instDecidableEqAnticausativeMarking x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

def Spanish.Verbs.instReprAnticausativeMarking.repr : AnticausativeMarking → ℕ → Std.Format

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@[instance_reducible]

instance Spanish.Verbs.instReprAnticausativeMarking : Repr AnticausativeMarking

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.instReprAnticausativeMarking = { reprPrec := Spanish.Verbs.instReprAnticausativeMarking.repr }

structure Spanish.Verbs.SpanishVerbEntryextends Verb : Type

A Spanish verb with the marking of its intransitive, none where it has none.

• valency : Valency
• voiceType : Option VoiceType
• passivizable : Bool
• perfectAuxiliaries : Finset PerfectAuxiliary
• vendlerClass : Option Aspect.VendlerClass
• scaleDimension : Option Degree.ScalarDimension
• scalePolarity : Polarity
• direction : Option Spatial.Path.Direction
• incrementality : Option Aspect.Incrementality
• phasal : Option Aspect.Phasal
• factivity : Option Presupposition.Factivity
• implicative : NaturalLogic.ImplicationSignature
• opaqueContext : Bool
• attitude : Option _root_.Attitude
• readings : List Reading
• complementSig : Option NaturalLogic.Signature
• levinClasses : Finset ArgumentStructure.LevinClass
• levinExcluded : Finset ArgumentStructure.LevinClass
• root : Semantics.Root
• morphs : List Morphology.Morph
• speechActVerb : Bool
• senseTag : SenseTag
• anticausativeMarking : Option AnticausativeMarking

  The marking of the intransitive.

def Spanish.Verbs.instBEqSpanishVerbEntry.beq : SpanishVerbEntry → SpanishVerbEntry → Bool

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.instBEqSpanishVerbEntry.beq { toVerb := a, anticausativeMarking := a_1 } { toVerb := b, anticausativeMarking := b_1 } = (a == b && a_1 == b_1)
• Spanish.Verbs.instBEqSpanishVerbEntry.beq x✝¹ x✝ = false

@[instance_reducible]

instance Spanish.Verbs.instBEqSpanishVerbEntry : BEq SpanishVerbEntry

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.instBEqSpanishVerbEntry = { beq := Spanish.Verbs.instBEqSpanishVerbEntry.beq }

@[reducible, inline]

abbrev Spanish.Verbs.SpanishVerbEntry.Alternates (v : SpanishVerbEntry) : Prop

The verb alternates when it has a transitive causative use beside its intransitive.

Equations

• v.Alternates = v.Alternates Voice.anticausative

def Spanish.Verbs.effectorSubject : ArgumentStructure.EntailmentProfile

The subject of a verb whose causer need only cause the change, whether an agent, an instrument, a natural force or an event: [KG09]'s EFFECTOR.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.effectorSubject = {ArgumentStructure.ProtoRoleFeature.causation, ArgumentStructure.ProtoRoleFeature.independentExistence}

def Spanish.Verbs.abrir : SpanishVerbEntry

abrir 'open', with a marked intransitive abrirse. Its causer may be an agent, an instrument or a natural force ([KG09]).

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def Spanish.Verbs.romper : SpanishVerbEntry

romper 'break', with a marked intransitive romperse. Its causer may be an agent, an instrument, a natural force or an event ([KG09]).

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def Spanish.Verbs.hundir : SpanishVerbEntry

hundir 'sink', with a marked intransitive hundirse. Its causer is unrestricted ([KG09]).

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def Spanish.Verbs.caer : SpanishVerbEntry

caer 'fall', an unaccusative that occurs with and without the clitic, cayó and se cayó ([MP26]).

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def Spanish.Verbs.morir : SpanishVerbEntry

morir 'die', an unaccusative that occurs with and without the clitic, murió and se murió ([MP26]).

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def Spanish.Verbs.cerrar : SpanishVerbEntry

cerrar 'close', with a marked intransitive cerrarse.

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def Spanish.Verbs.quebrar : SpanishVerbEntry

quebrar 'crack', with a marked intransitive, el florero se quebró and never el florero quebró ([MP26]).

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def Spanish.Verbs.hervir : SpanishVerbEntry

hervir 'boil', whose intransitive is usually bare, el agua hirvió, and marginally takes the clitic ([MP26]).

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def Spanish.Verbs.olvidar : SpanishVerbEntry

olvidar 'forget', whose intransitive olvidarse takes a dative experiencer, se me olvidó.

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def Spanish.Verbs.ocurrir : SpanishVerbEntry

ocurrir 'occur', whose marked form ocurrirse takes a dative experiencer, se me ocurrió una idea.

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def Spanish.Verbs.mejorar : SpanishVerbEntry

mejorar 'improve', with a bare intransitive, los sueldos mejoraron and never los sueldos se mejoraron ([MP26]).

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def Spanish.Verbs.rasgar : SpanishVerbEntry

rasgar 'tear', with a marked intransitive. Unlike English tear it requires a flimsy or insubstantial patient and a unidirectional, gash-like separation, and it is incompatible with careful, controlled action ([SMcN26] §3.2).

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def Spanish.Verbs.asesinar : SpanishVerbEntry

asesinar 'assassinate', whose causer must be an agent, has no intransitive, since with the clitic it is only reflexive, el senador se asesinó 'the senator killed himself' ([KG09] exx. 24–29).

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def Spanish.Verbs.cortar : SpanishVerbEntry

cortar 'cut', which requires an agent and has no intransitive in that sense ([KG09]). In the sense 'snap' it has the marked intransitive of se me cortó la correa 'the strap snapped on me' ([MP26]), which the marking records; the frames are those of 'cut'.

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def Spanish.Verbs.ahogar : SpanishVerbEntry

ahogar 'drown', with an EFFECTOR causer and typically an animate theme; ahogarse is its derived inchoative ([KG09] exx. 50–52).

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def Spanish.Verbs.empeorar : SpanishVerbEntry

empeorar 'worsen', an internally caused change of state with a bare intransitive, which rejects por sí solo 'by itself' ([KG09] ex. 65a).

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def Spanish.Verbs.quemar : SpanishVerbEntry

quemar 'burn', with a marked intransitive quemarse.

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def Spanish.Verbs.crecer : SpanishVerbEntry

crecer 'grow', an internally caused change of state, which rejects por sí solo 'by itself' ([KG09] ex. 65c).

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def Spanish.Verbs.allVerbs : List SpanishVerbEntry

The verbs of the fragment.

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Verbs of the dative survey

The verbs whose dative arguments [Cue03] surveys, by the frames they show there: transitive activities, unaccusatives of movement, happening and existence, a dative-experiencer psych verb and two unergatives, one of which also takes an object.

def Spanish.Verbs.mandar : Verb

mandar 'send' — transitive, directional towards a recipient.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.mandar = { valency := Verb.Valency.of [(ArgumentFrame.np, [0, 1]), (ArgumentFrame.np_pp, [0, 1, 2])], morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "mandar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.preparar : Verb

preparar 'fix, prepare' — transitive verb of creation.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.preparar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "preparar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.sacar : Verb

sacar 'take away' — transitive, directional away from a source.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.sacar = { valency := Verb.Valency.of [(ArgumentFrame.np, [0, 1]), (ArgumentFrame.np_pp, [0, 1, 2])], morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "sacar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.lavar : Verb

lavar 'wash' — transitive activity, non-directional.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.lavar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "lavar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.admirar : Verb

admirar 'admire' — transitive stative.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.admirar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "admirar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.llegar : Verb

llegar 'arrive' — unaccusative verb of movement.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.llegar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.intransitive, voiceType := some VoiceType.nonThematic, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "llegar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.salir : Verb

salir 'come out' — unaccusative verb of movement.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.salir = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.intransitive, voiceType := some VoiceType.nonThematic, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "salir"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.suceder : Verb

suceder 'happen' — unaccusative verb of happening.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.suceder = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.intransitive, voiceType := some VoiceType.nonThematic, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "suceder"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.sobrar : Verb

sobrar 'be left over, be extra' — unaccusative existential.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.sobrar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.intransitive, voiceType := some VoiceType.nonThematic, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "sobrar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.gustar : Verb

gustar 'appeal to, be liked by' — unaccusative psych verb whose experiencer is dative.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.gustar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.intransitive, voiceType := some VoiceType.nonThematic, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "gustar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.caminar : Verb

caminar 'walk' — unergative.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.caminar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.intransitive, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "caminar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.correr : Verb

correr 'run' — unergative, also transitive with an object naming the race run.

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.correr = { valency := Verb.Valency.of [(ArgumentFrame.intransitive, [0]), (ArgumentFrame.np, [0, 1])], morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "correr"] }

Verbs with a lexical reciprocal entry

def Spanish.Verbs.abrazar : Verb

abrazar 'hug' — transitive, with a lexical reciprocal entry ([Pal24], Appendix A).

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.abrazar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "abrazar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.acurrucar : Verb

acurrucar 'cuddle' — transitive, with a lexical reciprocal entry ([Pal24], Appendix A).

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.acurrucar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "acurrucar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.besar : Verb

besar 'kiss' — transitive, with a lexical reciprocal entry ([Pal24], Appendix A).

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.besar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "besar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.casar : Verb

casar 'marry' — transitive, with a lexical reciprocal entry ([Pal24], Appendix A).

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.casar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "casar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.consultar : Verb

consultar 'consult/confer' — transitive, with a lexical reciprocal entry ([Pal24], Appendix A).

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.consultar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "consultar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.cruzar : Verb

cruzar 'run into, meet accidentally' — transitive, with a lexical reciprocal entry ([Pal24], Appendix A).

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.cruzar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "cruzar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.dejar : Verb

dejar 'leave/break up' — transitive, with a lexical reciprocal entry ([Pal24], Appendix A).

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.dejar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "dejar"] }

def Spanish.Verbs.encontrar : Verb

encontrar 'find/meet' — transitive, with a lexical reciprocal entry ([Pal24], Appendix A).

Equations

• Spanish.Verbs.encontrar = { valency := Verb.Valency.ofFrame ArgumentFrame.np, morphs := [Morphology.Morph.root "encontrar"] }

Attitude and causative verbs

def Spanish.Verbs.creer : Verb

creer 'believe' takes a que clause in the indicative.

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def Spanish.Verbs.querer : Verb

querer 'want' takes a que clause in the subjunctive, with disjoint reference, and an infinitive under subject control.

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def Spanish.Verbs.esperar : Verb

esperar 'hope' takes a que clause in the subjunctive and an infinitive under subject control. With an indicative clause about the future the verb means 'expect', a sense this entry does not cover.

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def Spanish.Verbs.hacer : Verb

The causative hacer 'make' takes an infinitive under object control and a que clause in the subjunctive.

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def Spanish.Verbs.convencer : Verb

convencer 'convince' takes an object and a de que clause, which reports an intention in the subjunctive and a belief in the indicative.

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