Malayic Voice System: Voice/v Decomposition

@cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} @cite{nomoto-2015} @cite{nomoto-2021}

The verbal extended projection in Malayic languages involves two functional heads above VP (@cite{nomoto-2015}, @cite{nomoto-2021}):

• Voice (higher): the phase head of the verbal domain. Always hosts exactly one nominal (DP) specifier. Realizes me-, di-, or ∅ depending on adjacency to v and the flavor of v.

• v (lower): introduces the external argument in its specifier. Two flavors:

  • v_ACT: licenses the internal argument (theme) via c-command. Realizes as the homorganic nasal N-.
  • v_PASS: licenses its specifier (the external argument). Realizes as ∅.

The key insight of @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} is that the active prefix meN- in SI/SM reflects TWO affixes (me- on Voice + N- on v), and that the behavior of object extraction constructions (so-called "meN-deletion") follows from cyclic linearization when Voice is null.

Cross-linguistic variation

The Malayic varieties differ only in their vocabulary items for Voice and v, not in the underlying clause structure:

Variety	Voice (active)	Voice (passive)	Voice (elsewhere)	v_ACT	v_PASS
Desa	me- / __ * v_ACT	di- / __ * v_PASS	∅	N- (always)	∅
SI/SM	me- / __ * v_ACT	di- / __ * v_PASS	∅	N- / Voice * __ ; else ∅	∅
Polite Madurese	N- / __ * v_ACT	e- / __ * v_PASS	∅	∅	∅
Familiar Madurese	N- / __ v_ACT·P	e- / __ v_PASS·P	(no elsewhere)	∅	∅

* = linear adjacency required; ·P = structural adjacency to vP.

inductive Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.LittleVFlavor : Type

The two flavors of the lower functional head v. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} (32b,c).

• act : LittleVFlavor

  Active: licenses internal argument via c-command. Realizes as homorganic nasal N-.

• pass : LittleVFlavor

  Passive: licenses its specifier (external argument, if present). Realizes as ∅.

@[implicit_reducible]

instance Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqLittleVFlavor : DecidableEq LittleVFlavor

Equations

• Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqLittleVFlavor x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

@[implicit_reducible]

instance Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instReprLittleVFlavor : Repr LittleVFlavor

Equations

• Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instReprLittleVFlavor = { reprPrec := Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instReprLittleVFlavor.repr }

def Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instReprLittleVFlavor.repr : LittleVFlavor → Nat → Std.Format

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

inductive Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction : Type

The four clause types in Malayic languages. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} (28), (29).

• active : VoiceConstruction

  Active: agent = subject, v = v_ACT, Voice = me-/N-.

• diPassive : VoiceConstruction

  di- passive: theme = subject, v = v_PASS, Voice = di-.

• barePassive : VoiceConstruction

  Bare passive: theme = subject, v = v_PASS, Voice = ∅, agent immediately preverbal.

• objectExtraction : VoiceConstruction

  Object extraction: theme A'-extracted, v = v_ACT, Voice = ∅, agent immediately preverbal.

@[implicit_reducible]

instance Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqVoiceConstruction : DecidableEq VoiceConstruction

Equations

• Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instDecidableEqVoiceConstruction x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

@[implicit_reducible]

instance Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instReprVoiceConstruction : Repr VoiceConstruction

Equations

• Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instReprVoiceConstruction = { reprPrec := Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instReprVoiceConstruction.repr }

def Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.instReprVoiceConstruction.repr : VoiceConstruction → Nat → Std.Format

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

def Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.vFlavor : VoiceConstruction → LittleVFlavor

The v flavor selected by each clause type.

Equations

• Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.active.vFlavor = Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.LittleVFlavor.act
• Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.diPassive.vFlavor = Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.LittleVFlavor.pass
• Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.barePassive.vFlavor = Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.LittleVFlavor.pass
• Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.objectExtraction.vFlavor = Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.LittleVFlavor.act

structure Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.MalayicVariety : Type

A Malayic variety, characterized by its vocabulary items for Voice and v. Each variety is a function from clause type to the overt realizations of Voice and v.

• name : String
• voiceExponent : VoiceConstruction → Option String

  Exponent of Voice in each clause type. none = null (pruned).

• vExponent : VoiceConstruction → Option String

  Exponent of v in each clause type. none = null.

• hasNullVoice : Bool

  Whether Voice has a null allomorph (∅ elsewhere). Determines availability of bare passive and object extraction.

def Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.desa : MalayicVariety

Suak Mansi Desa voice system. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} (31)–(32). Key: N- and meN- are in free variation in active clauses; only meN- (= me- + N-) is blocked in object extraction.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

def Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.standardSISM : MalayicVariety

Standard Indonesian / Standard Malay voice system. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} (48)–(49). Key: active verbs ALWAYS bear full meN- (no short N- variant). In object extraction, both me- and N- are lost.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

def Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.politeMadurese : MalayicVariety

Polite-register Madurese. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} (81)–(82), based on @cite{jeoung-2017}. Three voices (like Desa/SI/SM) plus object extraction. Voice has a null elsewhere allomorph → bare passive and object extraction are available.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

def Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.familiarMadurese : MalayicVariety

Familiar-register Madurese. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} (81), (83), based on @cite{jeoung-2017}. Only two voices (active, e- passive). Voice has NO null elsewhere allomorph → bare passive and object extraction are unavailable.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

def Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.MalayicVariety.clauseAvailable (v : MalayicVariety) : VoiceConstruction → Bool

Whether a clause type is grammatical in a given variety. Bare passives and object extraction require Voice to have a null allomorph. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} §4.3, §5.3.

Equations

• v.clauseAvailable Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.active = true
• v.clauseAvailable Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.diPassive = true
• v.clauseAvailable Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.barePassive = v.hasNullVoice
• v.clauseAvailable Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.VoiceConstruction.objectExtraction = v.hasNullVoice

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.desa_all_four (ct : VoiceConstruction) : desa.clauseAvailable ct = true

Desa has all four clause types.

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.sism_all_four (ct : VoiceConstruction) : standardSISM.clauseAvailable ct = true

SI/SM has all four clause types.

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.polite_madurese_all_four (ct : VoiceConstruction) : politeMadurese.clauseAvailable ct = true

Polite Madurese has all four clause types.

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.familiar_madurese_no_bare_passive : familiarMadurese.clauseAvailable VoiceConstruction.barePassive = false

Familiar Madurese lacks bare passive and object extraction.

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.familiar_madurese_no_object_extraction : familiarMadurese.clauseAvailable VoiceConstruction.objectExtraction = false

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.familiar_madurese_has_active : familiarMadurese.clauseAvailable VoiceConstruction.active = true

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.familiar_madurese_has_di_passive : familiarMadurese.clauseAvailable VoiceConstruction.diPassive = true

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.madurese_register_contrast : politeMadurese.hasNullVoice = true ∧ familiarMadurese.hasNullVoice = false

The Madurese register contrast: the ONLY difference is whether Voice has a null allomorph. This single parameter accounts for the presence vs absence of bare passives and object extraction. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} §5.3.

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.desa_keeps_n_in_extraction : desa.vExponent VoiceConstruction.objectExtraction = some "N-"

In Desa object extraction, v_ACT still realizes as N- (only Voice/me- is blocked). In SI/SM, both are lost. This is the key Desa vs SI/SM contrast. @cite{erlewine-sommerlot-2025} §2.3, (25) vs (22).

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.sism_loses_n_in_extraction : standardSISM.vExponent VoiceConstruction.objectExtraction = none

theorem Fragments.Malayic.VoiceSystem.obj_extraction_uses_vACT : VoiceConstruction.objectExtraction.vFlavor = LittleVFlavor.act

Object extraction always has v_ACT (not v_PASS).