Kashaya evidentiality

Kashaya (Pomoan, northern California) marks the source of the speaker's information with a paradigm of verbal suffixes, which Oswalt lays out in his Table 1 and which Aikhenvald sets beside the five-choice systems as a complex system with further terms. The rows of the table are the evidentials, top down in the order of Oswalt's hierarchy of preference; its columns are the modes of speech. A spontaneous remark, prompted by the event itself, makes the finest distinctions: the performative pair -ŵela -mela, the speaker performing or having just performed the act, so that the subject is first person; the factual-visual pair -ŵă -yă, the speaker seeing or having seen it, the imperfective factual also stating general truths and common knowledge; the auditory -V̂nnă, the sound of the action heard but not seen; inferential I -qă, inference from evidence found apart from the event; and the quotative -do, information learned from someone else. The performative and the factual-visual are complementary pairs selected by the aspect of the stem, the imperfective member for imperfective stems and the perfective for perfective ones, an aspectless stem taking either. A response to another's words adds the suffix -m and drops the performative, the factual-visual pair taking its place. The narrative construction, with the evidential on the assertive enclitic and the main verb in the absolutive, collapses all direct evidence to the personal experience -yowă against the quotative, and the archaic remote past -miyă marks personal experience in an irretrievable past. Inferential II -bi- is never verb-final: it precedes a subordinating suffix, the absolutive or another evidential, so it stands outside the mutually exclusive paradigm. WALS codes the language as having direct and indirect evidentials (Feature 77A).

Implementation notes

The forms are Oswalt's morphophonemic suffixes in Aikhenvald's typography, ŵ an initial that surfaces only after a vowel, V̂ a vowel determined by the preceding consonant and ă a final vowel that is zero before a word boundary. The performative covers none of Aikhenvald's six parameters: its source, the speaker's own act, lies outside them. The general truths the factual states are general knowledge cast in the visual, an extension of its coverage rather than a parameter of its own. The six parameters cannot split hearing from the other senses, so the auditory carries the whole non-visual sensory parameter although Oswalt notes that smell and touch fall by default to inferential I.

References

• [Osw86]
• [Aik04]
• [dH13b]

inductive Kashaya.Evidentiality.Mode : Type

The modes of speech, the columns of Oswalt's Table 1: the spontaneous remark, the response marked by -m, the narrative construction and the remote past.

• spontaneous : Mode
• responsive : Mode
• narrative : Mode
• remote : Mode

@[instance_reducible]

instance Kashaya.Evidentiality.instDecidableEqMode : DecidableEq Mode

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.instDecidableEqMode x✝ y✝ = if h : x✝.ctorIdx = y✝.ctorIdx then isTrue ⋯ else isFalse ⋯

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.instReprMode.repr : Mode → ℕ → Std.Format

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

@[instance_reducible]

instance Kashaya.Evidentiality.instReprMode : Repr Mode

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.instReprMode = { reprPrec := Kashaya.Evidentiality.instReprMode.repr }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.performative : Aspect.Perfectivity → Evidential

The performative pair -ŵela ~ -mela: the speaker performs or has just performed the act. Its source lies outside the six parameters, so it covers none.

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.performative Aspect.Perfectivity.imperfective = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "ŵela"], covers := ∅ }
• Kashaya.Evidentiality.performative Aspect.Perfectivity.perfective = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "mela"], covers := ∅ }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.factualVisual : Aspect.Perfectivity → Evidential

The factual-visual pair: the speaker sees or saw the event. The imperfective factual -ŵă also states general truths and common knowledge, general knowledge cast in the visual; the perfective visual -yă does not.

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.factualVisual Aspect.Perfectivity.imperfective = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "ŵă"], covers := {Evidential.Parameter.visual} }
• Kashaya.Evidentiality.factualVisual Aspect.Perfectivity.perfective = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "yă"], covers := {Evidential.Parameter.visual} }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.auditory : Evidential

The auditory -V̂nnă: the speaker heard the sound of the action but did not see it.

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.auditory = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "V̂nnă"], covers := {Evidential.Parameter.sensory} }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.inferential : Evidential

Inferential I -qă: inference from circumstances or evidence found apart, in space or time, from the event.

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.inferential = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "qă"], covers := {Evidential.Parameter.inference} }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.quotative : Evidential

The quotative -do: information learned from someone else.

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.quotative = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "do"], covers := {Evidential.Parameter.hearsay, Evidential.Parameter.quotative} }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.inferentialII : Evidential

Inferential II -bi-, which must be followed by another suffix: a subordinator, the absolutive in -biw 'it turned out', the quotative or inferential I.

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.inferentialII = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "bi"], covers := {Evidential.Parameter.inference} }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.personalExperience : Evidential

The personal experience -yowă of the narrative construction, the factual on an element -yo-, which replaces every evidential of direct evidence.

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.personalExperience = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "yowă"], covers := {Evidential.Parameter.visual, Evidential.Parameter.sensory, Evidential.Parameter.inference} }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.remotePast : Evidential

The archaic remote past -miyă, the visual on an element -mi-: personal experience in an irretrievable past.

Equations

• Kashaya.Evidentiality.remotePast = { morphs := [Morphology.Morph.suff "miyă"], covers := {Evidential.Parameter.visual, Evidential.Parameter.sensory, Evidential.Parameter.inference} }

def Kashaya.Evidentiality.paradigm : Mode → Aspect.Perfectivity → List Evidential

The paradigm of a mode for stems of an aspect is a column of Table 1 read top down, in the order of Oswalt's hierarchy.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.
• Kashaya.Evidentiality.paradigm Kashaya.Evidentiality.Mode.narrative x✝ = [Kashaya.Evidentiality.personalExperience, Kashaya.Evidentiality.quotative]
• Kashaya.Evidentiality.paradigm Kashaya.Evidentiality.Mode.remote x✝ = [Kashaya.Evidentiality.remotePast, Kashaya.Evidentiality.quotative]