Kashaya Evidentiality #
[Osw86] organizes the Kashaya evidential suffixes into a five-level hierarchy:
Performative > Factual-Visual > Auditory > Inferential > Quotative
Performative -wela/-mela (imperfective/perfective) sits at the top:
the speaker performs or has just performed the act. Factual -wâ and
Visual -yá form a single hierarchical level split by aspect — factual
also covers generic common knowledge. Auditory -V̂nnâ marks non-visual
sensory evidence; the auditory/visual split is what makes Kashaya
famous in the typological literature ([Aik04]).
Inferential I -qá is the default non-sensory inference; a distinct
Inferential II -bi heads subordinate clauses. Quotative -do marks
hearsay. In the narrative mode, the direct-evidence distinctions
collapse to Personal Experience -yowâ and (archaic) Remote Past
-miyâ.
WALS [dH13b] F77A codes Kashaya (kju) as directAndIndirect
(value 3). The five-level hierarchy is preserved in the markers field.
Typed evidential inventory #
Oswalt's five-level hierarchy ([Osw86]) collapsed onto the
substrate trichotomy: performative + factual-visual + auditory map to
Direct; inferential I and II to Inferential; quotative to
Reportative. The auditory/visual contrast — Kashaya's typologically
famous feature — is preserved as DirectSource.auditory vs .visual.
Equations
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