Indonesian phonology

This file defines the segments of Standard Indonesian and the alternation of the nasal that ends the prefixes meN- and peN-.

The nasal is a velar /ŋ/. It takes the place of a following obstruent, as in membeli from beli, and it is lost before a nasal, a liquid or a glide, as in melihat from lihat. A root-initial p, t, k or s fuses with it into one nasal, as in memakai from pakai, which is called nasal substitution. Following Pater, assimilation applies throughout the word and fusion only at the left edge of the root.

Main definitions

• consonants, vowels: the phonemes, named by their spelling. e is the schwa and é is /e/.
• assimilate: each nasal of a word takes the place of a following obstruent, by the rules of Phonology/NasalSubstitution.lean.
• substituting, fuse: the consonants that fuse with the prefix nasal, and the nasal that results.
• juncture: what the prefix nasal and the base-initial segment surface as.
• meN, peN: the two prefixes attached to a base.

Main results

• subset_ind: the phonemes are those of PHOIBLE's Standard Indonesian inventory.
• voicelessObstruents_sdiff_substituting: the voiceless obstruents that do not fuse are c and the fricatives of loans.
• juncture_of_sonorant, juncture_of_vowel_or_h, juncture_of_obstruent: the juncture for each class of base-initial segment.
• fuse_eq: the fused nasals are m, n, ng and, for s, ny.

Implementation notes

That c does not fuse and that s fuses into the palatal ny are the two exceptions that McDonnell and colleagues list for the standard language. The menge- of one-syllable bases is not defined.

References

• J. N. Sneddon, Indonesian: A comprehensive grammar (1996)
• B. McDonnell, J. Wu, T. McKinnon and A. Adelaar, Malayic languages (2024)
• M. Donohue, Phonotactics and morphophonology (2024)
• J. Pater, Austronesian nasal substitution revisited: what's wrong with *NC (and what's not) (2001)
• S. Moran and D. McCloy, PHOIBLE 2.0

Segments

def Indonesian.Phonology.p : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless bilabial stop p.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.p = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.p

def Indonesian.Phonology.b : Phonology.Segment

The voiced bilabial stop b.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.b = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.b

def Indonesian.Phonology.t : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless alveolar stop t.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.t = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.t

def Indonesian.Phonology.d : Phonology.Segment

The voiced alveolar stop d.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.d = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.d

def Indonesian.Phonology.c : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless postalveolar affricate c, /tʃ/.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.c = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.«t̠ʃ»

def Indonesian.Phonology.j : Phonology.Segment

The voiced postalveolar affricate j, /dʒ/.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.j = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.«d̠ʒ»

def Indonesian.Phonology.k : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless velar stop k.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.k = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.k

def Indonesian.Phonology.g : Phonology.Segment

The voiced velar stop g.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.g = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.«ɡ»

def Indonesian.Phonology.f : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless labiodental fricative f, in loans.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.f = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.f

def Indonesian.Phonology.s : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless alveolar fricative s.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.s = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.s

def Indonesian.Phonology.z : Phonology.Segment

The voiced alveolar fricative z, in loans.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.z = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.z

def Indonesian.Phonology.sy : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless postalveolar fricative sy, /ʃ/, in loans.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.sy = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.«ʃ»

def Indonesian.Phonology.kh : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless velar fricative kh, /x/, in loans.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.kh = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.x

def Indonesian.Phonology.h : Phonology.Segment

The glottal fricative h.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.h = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.h

def Indonesian.Phonology.m : Phonology.Segment

The bilabial nasal m.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.m = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.m

def Indonesian.Phonology.n : Phonology.Segment

The alveolar nasal n.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.n = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.n

def Indonesian.Phonology.ny : Phonology.Segment

The palatal nasal ny, /ɲ/.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.ny = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.«ɲ»

def Indonesian.Phonology.ng : Phonology.Segment

The velar nasal ng, /ŋ/.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.ng = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.ŋ

def Indonesian.Phonology.l : Phonology.Segment

The lateral l.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.l = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.l

def Indonesian.Phonology.r : Phonology.Segment

The trill r.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.r = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.r

def Indonesian.Phonology.w : Phonology.Segment

The labial-velar glide w.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.w = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.w

def Indonesian.Phonology.y : Phonology.Segment

The palatal glide y, /j/.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.y = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.j

def Indonesian.Phonology.i : Phonology.Segment

The high front vowel i.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.i = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.i

def Indonesian.Phonology.u : Phonology.Segment

The high back vowel u.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.u = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.u

def Indonesian.Phonology.é : Phonology.Segment

The mid front vowel é, /e/, spelled e.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.é = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.e

def Indonesian.Phonology.e : Phonology.Segment

The schwa e, /ə/.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.e = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.«ə»

def Indonesian.Phonology.o : Phonology.Segment

The mid back vowel o.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.o = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.o

def Indonesian.Phonology.a : Phonology.Segment

The low vowel a.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.a = Phonology.Segment.ofChart Data.PHOIBLE.FeatureMatrix.a

def Indonesian.Phonology.consonants : Finset Phonology.Segment

The consonants, pairwise distinct.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

def Indonesian.Phonology.vowels : Finset Phonology.Segment

The vowels, pairwise distinct.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.subset_ind : (consonants ∪ vowels).erase y ⊆ Data.PHOIBLE.Inventories.Indonesian.ind.segments

Every phoneme but the palatal glide is a segment of PHOIBLE's Standard Indonesian inventory.

Natural classes

def Indonesian.Phonology.trigger : Phonology.Segment

The segments that a preceding nasal assimilates to, which are the obstruents. The glottal h is not consonantal.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.trigger = Phonology.Segment.ofSpecs [(Phonology.Feature.consonantal, true), (Phonology.Feature.sonorant, false)]

def Indonesian.Phonology.voicelessObstruent : Phonology.Segment

The voiceless obstruents.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.voicelessObstruent = Phonology.Segment.ofSpecs [(Phonology.Feature.consonantal, true), (Phonology.Feature.sonorant, false), (Phonology.Feature.voice, false)]

def Indonesian.Phonology.sonorantConsonant : Phonology.Segment

The sonorant consonants, [+sonorant, −syllabic], which are the nasals, liquids and glides.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.sonorantConsonant = Phonology.Segment.ofSpecs [(Phonology.Feature.sonorant, true), (Phonology.Feature.syllabic, false)]

Nasal assimilation

def Indonesian.Phonology.assimilate : List Phonology.Segment → List Phonology.Segment

assimilate w is the word w with each nasal assimilated to a following obstruent.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.assimilate = Phonology.NasalSubstitution.assimilate Indonesian.Phonology.trigger Indonesian.Phonology.ng

Nasal substitution

def Indonesian.Phonology.substituting : Finset Phonology.Segment

The root-initial consonants that fuse with the prefix nasal.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.substituting = {Indonesian.Phonology.p, Indonesian.Phonology.t, Indonesian.Phonology.k, Indonesian.Phonology.s}

def Indonesian.Phonology.fuse (x : Phonology.Segment) : List Phonology.Segment

What the prefix nasal and a root-initial x fuse into, which is the assimilated nasal, except that with s it is the palatal ny.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.fuse x = if x = Indonesian.Phonology.s then [Indonesian.Phonology.ny] else Phonology.NasalSubstitution.substitute Indonesian.Phonology.trigger Indonesian.Phonology.ng x

def Indonesian.Phonology.juncture (x : Phonology.Segment) : List Phonology.Segment

What the prefix nasal and the base-initial segment x surface as. A substituting consonant fuses with the nasal, the nasal is lost before a sonorant consonant, and otherwise it assimilates.

Equations

• One or more equations did not get rendered due to their size.

def Indonesian.Phonology.junctureRetained (x : Phonology.Segment) : List Phonology.Segment

The juncture with a base that keeps its initial consonant, where there is no fusion.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.junctureRetained x = if Indonesian.Phonology.sonorantConsonant ≤ x then [x] else Indonesian.Phonology.assimilate [Indonesian.Phonology.ng, x]

def Indonesian.Phonology.prefixN (pre : List Phonology.Segment) : List Phonology.Segment → List Phonology.Segment

prefixN pre base attaches to base the prefix that consists of pre and the nasal.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.prefixN pre [] = pre ++ [Indonesian.Phonology.ng]
• Indonesian.Phonology.prefixN pre (x_1 :: rest) = pre ++ Indonesian.Phonology.juncture x_1 ++ rest

def Indonesian.Phonology.meN : List Phonology.Segment → List Phonology.Segment

The verbal prefix meN-.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.meN = Indonesian.Phonology.prefixN [Indonesian.Phonology.m, Indonesian.Phonology.e]

def Indonesian.Phonology.peN : List Phonology.Segment → List Phonology.Segment

The nominal prefix peN-.

Equations

• Indonesian.Phonology.peN = Indonesian.Phonology.prefixN [Indonesian.Phonology.p, Indonesian.Phonology.e]

The juncture by class

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.substituting_subset : substituting ⊆ {x ∈ consonants | voicelessObstruent ≤ x}

The substituting consonants are voiceless obstruents.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.voicelessObstruents_sdiff_substituting : {x ∈ consonants | voicelessObstruent ≤ x} \ substituting = {c, f, sy, kh}

The voiceless obstruents that do not substitute are c and the fricatives of loans.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.juncture_of_mem_substituting {x : Phonology.Segment} (hx : x ∈ substituting) : juncture x = fuse x

A substituting consonant is replaced by one nasal.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.juncture_of_sonorant (x : Phonology.Segment) : x ∈ consonants → sonorantConsonant ≤ x → juncture x = [x]

The nasal is lost before a nasal, a liquid or a glide.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.juncture_of_vowel_or_h (x : Phonology.Segment) : x ∈ insert h vowels → juncture x = [ng, x]

The nasal is velar before a vowel and before h.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.juncture_of_obstruent (x : Phonology.Segment) : x ∈ consonants → x.IsObstruent → x ∉ substituting → juncture x = assimilate [ng, x]

Before an obstruent that does not substitute, the nasal and the obstruent both surface.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.juncture_head_agrees (x : Phonology.Segment) : x ∈ consonants → x.IsObstruent → x ≠ s → ∀ N ∈ (juncture x).head?, N.IsNasal ∧ ∀ ft ∈ Phonology.FeatureClass.place.erase Phonology.Feature.strident, N ft = x ft

Before every obstruent but s the nasal at the juncture is a nasal that agrees with the obstruent in every place feature but [strident].

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.fuse_eq : fuse p = [m] ∧ fuse t = [n] ∧ fuse k = [ng] ∧ fuse s = [ny]

The fused nasals are phonemes, the nasal of the place of each stop and the palatal for s.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.junctureRetained_s : junctureRetained s = [n, s]

Where s is kept the nasal before it is alveolar, as in mensukseskan.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.placeAssimilation_s : (Phonology.NasalSubstitution.placeAssimilation trigger).apply [ng, s] = [n.setFeature Phonology.Feature.strident true, s] ∧ assimilate [ng, s] = [n, s]

The place class alone makes the nasal before s strident, and the redundancy rule restores n.

Examples

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.mengajar : meN [a, j, a, r] = [m, e, ng, a, j, a, r]

mengajar 'teach' from ajar, with the velar nasal before a vowel.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.memakai : meN [p, a, k, a, i] = [m, e, m, a, k, a, i]

memakai 'use' from pakai, with substitution of p.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.membeli : meN [b, e, l, i] = [m, e, m, b, e, l, i]

membeli 'buy' from beli, with assimilation alone before a voiced stop.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.menyewa : meN [s, é, w, a] = [m, e, ny, é, w, a]

menyewa 'rent' from sewa, with the palatal nasal for s.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.melihat : meN [l, i, h, a, t] = [m, e, l, i, h, a, t]

melihat 'see' from lihat, with loss of the nasal before a liquid.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.penulis : peN [t, u, l, i, s] = [p, e, n, u, l, i, s]

penulis 'writer' from tulis, with the same alternation under peN-.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.menampar : meN [t, a, m, p, a, r] = [m, e, n, a, m, p, a, r] ∧ assimilate [t, a, m, p, a, r] = [t, a, m, p, a, r]

meN- on tampar 'slap'. Substitution takes the root-initial t and leaves the cluster inside the root, which assimilation does not change either.

theorem Indonesian.Phonology.memperbesar : assimilate ([m, e, ng] ++ [p, e, r] ++ [b, e, s, a, r]) = [m, e, m, p, e, r, b, e, s, a, r]

memperbesar 'enlarge' from besar with the prefix per-. Between the two prefixes the nasal assimilates and the p of per- is kept.