The seven heads of table (44).
Derives DecidableEq, Repr, Fintype.
Used by Feature, Head.short, Head.long, Head.neighborhood, relations_eq, syllables_short_long, headTable, optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP
Docs / Studies / Studies.Brodkin2026
Suppletion in Global Perspective
Brodkin, D. (2026). Linguistic Inquiry, 57(4), 661–709
Seven Mandar heads take a monosyllabic allomorph inside a phonological phrase φ and a longer one at its right edge, because Positional Minimality, Align-R(φ, (σ́σ)), outranks PRIORITY. Where Syllable Lifting can draw an unfooted syllable from the next φ of the same maximal φ, the suppletion is suspended, so Vocabulary Insertion reads prosody beyond the head.
Main definitions
vocabulary: the Vocabulary Items of the heads of (44), with (57a).Constituency,candidates,tableau: the syntax of the head and the next word, GEN over the allomorphs and the phrasings, and the ranking of (26c), (63), (64) and (80) over MAX-XP (23a), SUBCAT (29b), Positional Minimality (26a), PRIORITY (60a), Match(ω, X⁰) (75a) and Match(φ, XP) (23b).
Implementation notes
- The input is the syntax of the head and the next word: the phrases over the two words, each
anchored at its head's stressed syllable, the extended projection of a noun or predicate one
phrase anchored at the noun or predicate, and whether the next word is a second-position
element. MAX-XP is
Prosody.syntaxProsodyMax, the existential correspondence of Itô and Mester as their tableaux count it, which Brodkin adopts for (23a). - The maximal φ is the paper's domain stipulation on Syllable Lifting (§4.3), stated in GEN; an example records it where the paper brackets it or the clause has at most three words (85). The maximal φ over both words answers to the clause in Match(φ, XP).
- The c-command argument reads a phrase-structure tree of the ditransitive clause (90), built
from each example's words, with
RoseTree.CCommands. - A parse is built from the syllable count of the inserted form, its vowels in
Brodkin2026.Wordlist, whose 'who' forms are the surface forms of (42); what follows the head is a word whose first syllable is footed or unfooted under penultimate stress (14), (15).
TODO
- The segmental repairs of §2, Vʔ-epenthesis and blocked coalescence and gliding under DEP and ONSET, their suspension by Syllable Lifting ((71)–(73)), and the irreducible parallelism of (72b); the blocking of a 'maybe' (43b), which needs a null parse; prefixes in the parse, for ya-do (54)–(55).
- Mandar segments in a Fragment, for syllables counted on typed segments.
References
- Brodkin 2026, Suppletion in Global Perspective
- Mascaró 2007, External Allomorphy and Lexical Representation
- Bonet et al. 2007, Allomorph Selection and Lexical Preferences: Two Case Studies
- Halle & Marantz 1993, Distributed Morphology and the pieces of inflection formalized
- Selkirk 2011, The Syntax-Phonology Interface
- Itô & Mester 2019, Match as Syntax-Prosody MAX/DEP: Prosodic Enclisis in English formalized
The vocabulary
The features the items mention: a head, and a categorizer, the v⁰ of maŋ-, mi- and ti- among them.
- head (h : Head) : Feature
- cat (c : DistributedMorphology.Categorizer) : Feature
Derives DecidableEq, Repr.
Built from
Used by Head.neighborhood, Item, Input, forms_not_function_of_constituency, forms_not_function_of_footed, forms_not_function_of_cCommanded
A head's unmarked allomorph, its φ-medial form in (44).
- Head.thisInHand.short = Wordlist.this_in_hand_short
- Head.this.short = Wordlist.this_short
- Head.that.short = Wordlist.that_short
- Head.neg.short = Wordlist.neg_short
- Head.what.short = Wordlist.what_short
- Head.which.short = Wordlist.which_short
- Head.who.short = Wordlist.who_short
Built from
Used by relations_eq, syllables_short_long, optimal_exponent
A head's marked allomorph, its φ-final form in (44).
- Head.thisInHand.long = Wordlist.this_in_hand_long
- Head.this.long = Wordlist.this_long
- Head.that.long = Wordlist.that_long
- Head.neg.long = Wordlist.neg_long
- Head.what.long = Wordlist.what_long
- Head.which.long = Wordlist.which_long
- Head.who.long = Wordlist.who_long
Built from
Used by relations_eq, syllables_short_long, optimal_exponent, suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP
The neighborhood of a head, with a v⁰ one terminal toward the clause or not.
- h.neighborhood verbalized = { focus := {Feature.head h}, rightCtx := if verbalized = true then [{Feature.cat DistributedMorphology.Categorizer.v}] else [] }
Built from ,
Used by optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP
Built from , ,
The syllables of a form of (44), one to each vowel.
Used by syllables_short_long, Candidate.tree, maxXP, matchOmega, exists_phrasing_eq_zero, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le
A Vocabulary Item inserts a form of (44).
Built from
Used by vocabulary, vocabulary_pairwise, Candidate, candidates, priority, tableau, mem_candidates, priority_eq_zero_iff, exists_phrasing_eq_zero, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le, winner?_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal, not_subsetPrinciple_eq_forms
The vocabulary in PRIORITY's order: (57a), √WHAT as apa under v⁰, then each head's unconditioned unmarked item before its marked one.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
Used by vocabulary_pairwise, rows_optimal, optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP, winner?_vocabulary_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal
Built from ,
Inputs and candidates
The syntax of the head and the word after it: the phrases over the two words, in word units, each with the word heading it, and whether the second word is a second-position element, which subcategorizes for the minimal φ of the element before it (29).
- phrases : List ((ℕ × ℕ) × ℕ)
The phrases over the two words, each as the words it spans and the word heading it.
- subcat : Bool
The second word is a second-position element.
Derives DecidableEq.
Used by Constituency.sisters, Constituency.adjunct, Constituency.complement, Constituency.host, Input, constituencyTable, optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, forms_not_function_of_constituency, forms_not_function_of_footed
The head ends its phrase and the next word heads a sister phrase: a stranded head, or a wh-phrase before the predicate.
- Constituency.sisters = { phrases := [((0, 1), 0), ((1, 2), 1)], subcat := false }
Built from
Used by optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP, exists_phrasing_eq_zero, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le
The next word heads a phrase inside the head's own, the deictic e or o after a stranded demonstrative or negator ((33b), (36b)).
- Constituency.adjunct = { phrases := [((0, 2), 0), ((1, 2), 1)], subcat := false }
Built from
Used by optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, exists_phrasing_eq_zero, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le
The next word heads the head's phrase, a noun or predicate whose extended projection the head belongs to ((33a), (36a)), one phrase as Itô & Mester 2019 count an extended projection.
- Constituency.complement = { phrases := [((0, 2), 1)], subcat := false }
Built from
Used by optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, exists_phrasing_eq_zero, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le
The next word is a second-position element hosted by the head's phrase ((40a)–(42a)).
- Constituency.host = { phrases := [((0, 1), 0)], subcat := true }
Built from
Used by optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, exists_phrasing_eq_zero, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le
The input at a head.
- neighborhood : DistributedMorphology.Neighborhood (Finset Feature)
The head and its morphosyntactic neighbors.
- constituency : Constituency
The syntax of the head and the next word.
- footed : Bool
The first syllable after the head is footed.
- sameMax : Bool
The next word shares the head's maximal φ.
Derives DecidableEq.
Built from ,
Used by Input.next, Input.parse, Input.parse.pair, Input.cut, Input.stress, Input.phrases, Input.words, Candidate.tree, candidates, maxXP, subcat, positionalMinimality, priority, matchOmega, matchPhi, tableau, Row, suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP, mem_candidates, priority_eq_zero_iff, exists_phrasing_eq_zero, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le, winner?_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal, winner?_vocabulary_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal, not_realizes_of_constituency, not_realizes_of_footed
The prosodic word of n syllables with penultimate stress (14), a trochee over its last two
syllables and the earlier ones unfooted (15); a monosyllable is a degenerate foot.
- penultimate 0 = Prosody.Tree.om []
- penultimate 1 = Prosody.Tree.om [Prosody.Tree.ft true [Prosody.Tree.σ 0 true]]
- penultimate n.succ.succ = Prosody.Tree.om (List.replicate n Prosody.Tree.σ ++ [Prosody.Tree.ft true [Prosody.Tree.σ 0 true, Prosody.Tree.σ]])
Used by level_value_penultimate, numLeaves_penultimate, spans_penultimate_ph, spans_penultimate_isMinimalPhi, spans_penultimate_isTrochee, Input.parse
A disyllabic trochee is a well-formed foot with the head profile of Foot.trochee.
- IsTrochee t = (Prosody.IsFoot t ∧ Prosody.Foot.childHeadFlags t = [true, false])
Used by instDecidablePredTreeIsTrochee, spans_penultimate_isTrochee
- instDecidablePredTreeIsTrochee x✝ = { decide := decide (Prosody.IsFoot x✝) && decide (Prosody.Foot.childHeadFlags x✝ = [true, false]), reflects_decide := ⋯ }
Built from
A minimal φ dominates no φ.
- IsMinimalPhi t = ((RoseTree.value t).level = Prosody.Level.ph ∧ ∀ c ∈ RoseTree.children t, c.value.level ≠ Prosody.Level.ph)
Used by instDecidablePredTreeIsMinimalPhi, spans_penultimate_isMinimalPhi
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
Built from
Built from
(k : ℕ) :
(RoseTree.spans (penultimate k) fun (x : RoseTree Prosody.Constituent) => x.value.level = Prosody.Level.ph) = []
Built from
Built from ,
Built from ,
How a candidate phrases the head and the next word.
- joined : Phrasing
Both in one φ.
- separate : Phrasing
Each in a φ of its own.
- lifted : Phrasing
Each in a φ of its own, with the first syllable after the head lifted into the head's foot.
Derives DecidableEq, Repr, Fintype.
Used by Input.parse, Candidate, exists_phrasing_eq_zero
The syllables of the word standing for what follows the head: a disyllable when the first syllable after the head is footed and a trisyllable when it is not, since only the footing of that syllable bears on the constraints.
Built from
Used by Input.parse, Input.cut, Input.stress, Input.words
The parse of the input by a head of k syllables under a phrasing, the two φs grouped into one
maximal φ where the next word shares the head's.
- x.parse k Phrasing.joined = RoseTree.node Prosody.Constituent.iota [Prosody.Tree.ph [penultimate k, penultimate x.next]]
- x.parse k Phrasing.separate = Input.parse.pair x (penultimate k) (penultimate x.next)
- x.parse k Phrasing.lifted = Input.parse.pair x (penultimate (k + 1)) (penultimate (x.next - 1))
Built from , , , ,
Used by Candidate.tree
Two φs, under one maximal φ where the next word shares the head's.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
Used by Input.parse
The cut before word w, in syllables, for a head of k syllables.
Built from ,
Used by Input.stress, Input.phrases
The spans of the morphosyntactic words, the head's k syllables and then the next word's.
Built from ,
Used by matchOmega
A candidate of GEN.
- item : Item
The Vocabulary Item the candidate inserts at the head.
- phrasing : Phrasing
How the candidate phrases the head and the next word.
Derives DecidableEq.
Built from ,
Used by Candidate.tree, candidates, maxXP, subcat, positionalMinimality, priority, matchOmega, matchPhi, tableau, rows_optimal, optimal_exponent, suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP, mem_candidates, priority_eq_zero_iff, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le, winner?_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal, winner?_vocabulary_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal
GEN offers each item of v applicable to the head in each phrasing, Syllable Lifting only where
the next word shares the head's maximal φ, the domain §4.3 gives it.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from , ,
Used by suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP, mem_candidates, winner?_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal, winner?_vocabulary_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal
MAX-XP (23a), evaluated as Itô & Mester 2019 evaluate it: one violation for each phrase left without a φ of its own, a φ containing the phrase's head and no head from outside the phrase, and answering to one phrase only.
- maxXP x c = Prosody.syntaxProsodyMax (x.phrases (syllables c.item.exponent)) Prosody.Level.ph (Candidate.tree x c)
Built from , , , ,
Used by exists_phrasing_eq_zero
SUBCAT (29b): a violation when a second-position element lies in no minimal φ together with the element before it.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from ,
Used by suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP, exists_phrasing_eq_zero
Positional Minimality (26a), Align-R(φ, (σ́σ)): one violation for each φ whose right edge no disyllabic trochee shares.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from ,
Used by suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP, exists_phrasing_eq_zero
PRIORITY (60a), after Mascaró 2007: as many violations as the inserted item stands below
the first item of v applicable to the head.
- priority v x c = List.idxOf c.item (v.applicable x.neighborhood)
Built from , ,
Used by suppletion_not_optimal_without_maxXP, priority_eq_zero_iff, winner?_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal, winner?_vocabulary_eq_some_item_of_mem_optimal
Match(ω, X⁰) (75a): one violation for each ω that is not the span of a word.
- matchOmega x c = Prosody.prosodySyntaxMatch Prosody.Level.om (x.words (syllables c.item.exponent)) (Candidate.tree x c)
Built from , , , ,
Match(φ, XP) (23b): one violation for each φ that is not the span of a phrase, the maximal φ over both words answering to the clause.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from ,
The tableau of an input: MAX-XP and SUBCAT over Positional Minimality over PRIORITY over the Match constraints, as in (26c), (63), (64) and (80).
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from , ,
Used by rows_optimal, optimal_joined_iff, optimal_exponent, optimal_item_eq_of_two_le
The examples
An example.
- input : Input
The input at its head.
- form : CLDF.Wordlist.Form Wordlist.Cell
The allomorph the head takes.
Built from
Used by Row.ofDatum, rows, rows_optimal, ditransitiveRows, cCommanded_ditransitiveRows
The heads by the names the examples give them.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
The configurations by the names the examples give them.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
The row of an example.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
Used by row_ofDatum_isSome, rows
Built from
The rows of the examples.
- rows = List.filterMap Row.ofDatum Examples.all
Built from ,
Used by rows_optimal, forms_not_function_of_constituency, forms_not_function_of_footed, not_subsetPrinciple_eq_forms, not_realizes_of_constituency, not_realizes_of_footed
The grammar derives the examples: in each the optimal candidates insert the attested allomorph.
(d : Row) :
Built from , , , ,
Suppletion and its suspension
The optimal parses join a head with the next word exactly where that word heads the head's phrase or is a hosted second-position element ((24)–(26), (29)).
(h : Head) (footed sameMax : Bool) (s : Constituency) :
s ∈ [Constituency.sisters, Constituency.adjunct, Constituency.complement, Constituency.host] → ∀ c ∈ (tableau vocabulary { neighborhood := h.neighborhood false, constituency := s, footed := footed, sameMax := sameMax }).optimal, c.phrasing = Phrasing.joined ↔ s = Constituency.complement ∨ s = Constituency.host
Built from , , , , , , , ,
A head takes its marked allomorph exactly where it ends its φ and Syllable Lifting is unavailable (88).
(h : Head) (footed sameMax : Bool) (s : Constituency) :
s ∈ [Constituency.sisters, Constituency.adjunct, Constituency.complement, Constituency.host] → Finset.image (fun (x : Candidate) => x.item.exponent) (tableau vocabulary { neighborhood := h.neighborhood false, constituency := s, footed := footed, sameMax := sameMax }).optimal = {if ((s == Constituency.sisters || s == Constituency.adjunct) && (footed || !sameMax)) = true then h.long else h.short}
Built from , , , , , , , , , , ,
Without MAX-XP, a suppleted head is optimal under no ranking with PRIORITY active, against (76a), (77a) and (78a) (§3, §4).
(h : Head) (footed : Bool) {Fs : List (OptimalityTheory.Constraint Candidate)} (hFs : ∀ F ∈ Fs, F ∈ (fun (x : Input) => [subcat x, positionalMinimality x, priority vocabulary x, matchOmega x, matchPhi x]) { neighborhood := h.neighborhood false, constituency := Constituency.sisters, footed := footed, sameMax := true }) (hp : priority vocabulary { neighborhood := h.neighborhood false, constituency := Constituency.sisters, footed := footed, sameMax := true } ∈ Fs) :
{ item := DistributedMorphology.VocabularyItem.ofFeatures {Feature.head h} h.long, phrasing := Phrasing.separate } ∉ (OptimalityTheory.Tableau.ofList (candidates vocabulary { neighborhood := h.neighborhood false, constituency := Constituency.sisters, footed := footed, sameMax := true }) Fs).optimal
Built from , , , , , , , , , , , ,
{v : Morphology.Exponence.RuleSet Item} {x : Input} {c : Candidate} :
c ∈ candidates v x ↔ c.item ∈ v.applicable x.neighborhood ∧ (c.phrasing = Phrasing.lifted → x.sameMax = true)
Built from , , ,
{v : Morphology.Exponence.RuleSet Item} {x : Input} {c : Candidate} {i : Item} (hi : (v.applicable x.neighborhood).head? = some i) :
Built from , , ,
{x : Input} {i : Item} (hs : x.constituency ∈ [Constituency.sisters, Constituency.adjunct, Constituency.complement, Constituency.host]) (hk : 2 ≤ syllables i.exponent) :
Built from , , , , , , , , , ,
Where a head's first applicable item has at least two syllables, every optimal candidate inserts it (§3.3).
{v : Morphology.Exponence.RuleSet Item} {x : Input} {c : Candidate} {i : Item} (hs : x.constituency ∈ [Constituency.sisters, Constituency.adjunct, Constituency.complement, Constituency.host]) (hi : (v.applicable x.neighborhood).head? = some i) (hk : 2 ≤ syllables i.exponent) (hc : c ∈ (tableau v x).optimal) :
c.item = i
Built from , , , , , , , ,
PRIORITY undominated selects the Subset Principle's winner.
{v : Morphology.Exponence.RuleSet Item} {x : Input} {c : Candidate} (hv : List.Pairwise (fun (i j : Item) => DistributedMorphology.VocabularyItem.specificity j ≤ DistributedMorphology.VocabularyItem.specificity i) v) {Fs : List (OptimalityTheory.Constraint Candidate)} (hc : c ∈ (OptimalityTheory.Tableau.ofList (candidates v x) (priority v x :: Fs)).optimal) :
DistributedMorphology.winner? v x.neighborhood = some c.item
Built from , , , ,
{x : Input} {c : Candidate} {Fs : List (OptimalityTheory.Constraint Candidate)} (hc : c ∈ (OptimalityTheory.Tableau.ofList (candidates vocabulary x) (priority vocabulary x :: Fs)).optimal) :
DistributedMorphology.winner? vocabulary x.neighborhood = some c.item
Built from , , , ,
Globality
No function of a head's neighborhood and the syntax of head and next word gives the attested allomorphs ((76)–(78), (76a), (76b)).
Built from , ,
No function of a head's neighborhood, the syntax of head and next word, and footing of the next syllable gives the attested allomorphs ((84), (86), (86a), (86b)).
Built from , ,
No serial Vocabulary Insertion: no vocabulary inserts the attested allomorphs by the Subset Principle over the heads' neighborhoods, since a head's neighborhood does not determine its allomorph.
Built from ,
No rule set reading only the head's neighborhood and the syntax of head and next word, as frame (65) does, inserts the attested allomorphs.
{R : Type u_2} [Morphology.Exponence.Rule R Input (CLDF.Wordlist.Form Wordlist.Cell)] [DecidableRel Morphology.Exponence.Applies] {κ : Type u_3} [Preorder κ] [DecidableRel fun (x1 x2 : κ) => x1 < x2] (w : Morphology.Exponence.RuleSet R) (key : R → κ) (hw : ∀ r ∈ w, ∀ ⦃x y : Input⦄, (x.neighborhood, x.constituency) = (y.neighborhood, y.constituency) → (Morphology.Exponence.Applies r x ↔ Morphology.Exponence.Applies r y)) :
¬∀ d ∈ rows, w.realizeMinimal key d.input = some d.form
Built from ,
No selection by the next syllable: no rule set whose rules read of the input only the head's neighborhood, the syntax of the head and the next word and whether the next syllable is footed inserts the attested allomorphs.
{R : Type u_2} [Morphology.Exponence.Rule R Input (CLDF.Wordlist.Form Wordlist.Cell)] [DecidableRel Morphology.Exponence.Applies] {κ : Type u_3} [Preorder κ] [DecidableRel fun (x1 x2 : κ) => x1 < x2] (w : Morphology.Exponence.RuleSet R) (key : R → κ) (hw : ∀ r ∈ w, ∀ ⦃x y : Input⦄, (x.neighborhood, x.constituency, x.footed) = (y.neighborhood, y.constituency, y.footed) → (Morphology.Exponence.Applies r x ↔ Morphology.Exponence.Applies r y)) :
¬∀ d ∈ rows, w.realizeMinimal key d.input = some d.form
Built from ,
C-command
The categories of the ditransitive clause (90).
Derives DecidableEq, Repr.
Used by ditransitive, cCommandedWords
The ditransitive clause of (90), the verb raised to Voice over the internal argument, a demonstrative whose noun phrase is elided, and the applied argument in a rightward specifier of Appl above it ((89)). The traces of the raised verb and the elided noun phrase are silent leaves; the silent external argument and the final deictic are left out.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
The words of the terminals a position c-commands.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
The words the head of a ditransitive example c-commands, the clause built from its verb, its internal argument and its applied argument.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
The ditransitive examples, (78a), (78b) and (92), each with the words its head c-commands.
The definition is too large to print here; read it in the source.
Built from
Used by cCommanded_ditransitiveRows, forms_not_function_of_cCommanded
Built from ,
No function of a head's neighborhood and the words it c-commands gives the attested allomorphs ((92), §4.3, (78a), (78b)) ((90)).
Built from ,